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Bash: How to redirect standard error to standard out
Problem:
You have a program which is outputting information to standard error that you wish to search through. When commands are chained together in Unix via the pipe operator, standard out is connected to standard in. Thus you cannot easily search the contents of the standard error. How can you find what you’re looking for?
Solution
The first solution is to save the standard error as a file, and search through the file.
command_producing_standard_error 2> stderr.txt; grep "search string" stderr.txt; rm stderr.txt
This works but you have to remember to remove the text file that’s created in the process.
A better solution, and one that allows you to use the standard error in an existing pipeline is to instead redirect standard error to standard out.
command_producing_standard_error 2>&1 | grep "search string"
Recall that 2 refers to standard error and 1 refers to standard out; those familiar with C/C++ should recognize ‘&’ as the address operator, and it serves a similar role here. After this command, both the standard out and standard error are in one stream, standard out, and can be connected via the pipe (|) symbol to other programs, such as grep.
This tip is modified from information found in the Bash Cookbook, in the recipe “Saving Output When Redirect Doesn’t Seem To Work”. Additional solutions and discussion can be found on unix.stackexchange.com.
Quotes, quotes, quotes: A primer for the command line
In Bash programming, there are a lot of ways to get input into programs. In particular, there are a slew of different quoting methods you should understand. This article provides a quick reference of the difference between using No quotes, Double Quotes, Single Quotes, and Backticks
No quotes
Standard shell scripts assumes arguments are space delimited. You can iterate over elements in this way:
for i in Hi how are you; do echo $i; done Hi how are you
This is why it is a problem to have spaces in your file names. For instance,
$ ls with spaces.txt $ cat with spaces.txt cat: with: No such file or directory cat: spaces.txt: No such file or directory
Here I naively typed with spaces.txt thinking the cat program could handle it. Instead, cat saw two arguments: with, and spaces.txt. In order to handle this, you can either escape the space,
$ cat with\ spaces.txt
or use the double quotes method. (Note that if you use tab autocompletion, the backslash escape will be added automatically)
Double quotes
Double quotes can be used when you want to group multiple space delimited words together as a single argument. For instance
for i in "Hi how" "are you"; do echo $i; done Hi how are you
In the previous example, I could do
$ cat "with spaces.txt"
and the filename would be passed as a single unit to cat.
An important thing to note is that shell variables are expanded within double quotes.
name=Frank; echo "Hello $name" Hello Frank
This is crucial to understand. It also allows you to solve problems caused by having spaces in file names, especially when combined with the * globbing behavior of the shell. For instance, let’s say we wanted to iterate over all the text files in a directory and do something to them.
$ ls with spaces.txt withoutspaces.txt $ for i in *.txt; do cat $i; done cat: with: No such file or directory cat: spaces.txt: No such file or directory # Surround the $i with quotes and our space problem is solved. $ for i in *.txt; do cat "$i"; done
(Yes I know iterating over and calling cat on each argument is silly, as cat can accept a list of files (e.g. *.txt). But it illustrates the point that commands will be confused by spaces in the name and should use double quotes to handle the problem).
Single quotes are also good when you need to embed single quotes in a string (you do not need to escape them)
$ echo "'Single quotes'" 'Single quotes' $ echo "\"Escaped quotes\"" "Escaped quotes"
Double quotes are my default while I’m working in the terminal.
Single quotes
Single quotes act just like double quotes except that the text inside of them is interpreted literally; in other words, the shell does not attempt to do any more expansion or substitution. For instance,
$ name=Frank; echo 'Hello $name' Hello $name
This can save you some backslash escaping your normally would have to do.
Use it when:
- You need double quotes embedded in your string
$ echo '"How are you doing?", she said' "How are you doing?", she said
- You do not need any literal single quotes in your string (it’s very difficult to get single quotes/apostrophe literals to appear in such a string)
Back ticks
Back ticks (“, the key to the left of the 1 and above the Tab key on a standard US keyboard), allow you to substitute in the output of another command. For instance:
$ current_dir=`pwd` $ echo $current_dir /Users/nicholasdunn/Desktop/Scripts [/sourecode] This can be combined with the double quotes, but will be treated as literal characters in the single quotes: echo "`pwd`" /Users/nicholasdunn/Desktop/Scripts $ echo '`pwd`' `pwd`
Use when:
You want to capture the results of another command, usually for purposes of assigning a variable.
Hopefully this brief tour through the different types of quotes in bash has been useful.
Ternary operator in bash
Here’s a really quick tip for bash programmers.
In languages like C++, Java, Python, and the like, there’s the concept of a ternary operator. Basically it allows you to assign one value if a condition is true, else another.
In C/Java:
int x = valid ? 0 : 1;
In Python:
x = 0 if valid else 1
In Scala:
val x = if (valid) 0 else 1
Well, there’s no ternary operator in Bash, but there is a way to fake it.
valid=1 [ $valid ] && x=1 || x=0
Where whatever conditional you want is within the brackets.
If it’s valid, then the branch after the AND is followed, otherwise that after the OR is followed.
This is equivalent though perhaps a bit less readable then
if [ $valid ]; then x=1; else x=0; fi
So you should be aware of the construct in case you ever run into it, but it’s arguably less readable than just listing out explicitly what you’re doing.
Thanks to experts-exchange for making me aware of this little tip.
Mac OSX – copy terminal output to clipboard
Here’s a quick tip: If you want the results of some shell computation to be accessible to your clipboard (e.g. so you can paste the results into an e-mail or into some pastebin service), you can pipe the command into the `pbcopy` program.
echo "Hello world" | pbcopy # "Hello world" is now in your clipboard
Apparently there is a way to do a similar thing on Ubuntu as well
How to remove “smart” quotes from a text file
If you’ve copied and pasted text from Microsoft Word, chances are there will be the so-called smart quotes in that text. Some programs don’t handle these characters very well. You can turn them off in Word but if you’re trying to remedy the problem after the fact, sed is your old friend. I’ll show you how to replace these curly quotes with the traditional straight quote.
Recall that you can do global find/replace by using sed.
sed s/[”“]/'"'/g File.txt
This won’t actually change the contents of the File, but you can save the results to a new file
sed s/[”“]/'"'/g File.txt > WithoutSmartQuotes.txt
If you wish to save the files in place, overwriting the original contents, you would do
sed -i ".bk" s/[”“]/'"'/g File.txt
This tells the sed command to make the change “in place”, while backing up the original file to File.txt.bk in case anything goes wrong.
To fix the smart quotes in all the text files in a directory, do the following:
for i in *.txt; do sed -i ".bk" s/[”“]/'"'/g $i; done
At the conclusion of the command, you will have double the number of text files in the directory, due to all the backup files. When you’ve concluded that the changes are correct (do a diff File.txt File.txt.bk to see the difference), you can delete all the backup files with rm *.bk.
Unix tip #3: Introduction to Find, Grep, Sed
public int randomValue() {
// TODO: hook up the actual random number generator
return 0;
}
The problem is that these TODOs more often than not get ignored, especially if you have to search through the code yourself to try to find all of the remaining tasks. Fortunately, certain Programs (NetBeans and TextMate for two examples) can find instances of keywords indicating a task, extract the comments, and present them to you in a nice table view.
I’m going to step through the use of a few Unix tools that can be tied together to extract the data and create a similar view. In particular I will illustrate the use of find, grep, sed, and pipes.
The general steps I’ll be presenting are:
| Step | Tools used |
| 1. Find all Java files | find |
| 2. Find each TODO item | grep |
| 3. Extract filename, line number, task | sed |
| 4. Format results of step 3 as an HTML table | find/grep/sed/shell script |
.
Finding instances of text with grep
In order to extract all of the TODO items from within our java files, we need a way of searching for matching text. grep is the tool to do that. Grep takes as input a list of files to search and a pattern to try to match against; it will then emit a set of lines matching the pattern.
For instance, to search for TODO or any version of that string (todo, ToDO), in all the .java files in the current directory, you would execute the following:
grep -i TODO *.java Telephone.java: // TODO: Document Telephone.java: // TODO: throw exception if precondition is violated
Note that the line numbers are omitted. If we want them, we use the -n command
grep -i -n TODO *.java Telephone.java:20: // TODO: Document Telephone.java:29: // TODO: throw exception if precondition is violated
If all we want to do is get a rough estimate as to how many documented TODOs we have, we can pipe the result of this argument into the wc utility, which counts bytes, characters, or lines. We want the number of lines.
grep -i -n TODO *.java | wc -l
2
This works fine with a single directory of files, but it will not handle nested directories. For instance, if my directory structure looks like the following:
tree . |-- BalancedTernary.java `-- Telephone.java 0 directories, 2 files
All of these files will be searched when grep is run. But if I introduce new files in subdirectories:
mkdir Subdir echo "//TODO: Create this file" > Subdir/Test.java tree |-- BalancedTernary.java |-- Subdir | `-- Test.java `-- Telephone.java 1 directory, 3 files
The new Test.java will not be searched. In order make grep search through all of the subdirectories (i.e., recursively), you can combine grep with another extremely useful Unix utility, find. Before moving on to find, I want to stress that grep is extremely useful and vital to anyone using a Unix based machine. See grep tutorials for many good examples of how to use grep.
Finding files with find
The find command is extremely useful. The man page describes find as
find – search for files in a directory hierarchy
There are a lot of arguments you can use, but to get started, the basic syntax is
find [<starting location>] -name <name pattern>
If the starting location is not provided, it is assumed to be in the current directory (. in Unix terms). In all the examples that follow I will explicitly list the starting directory.
For instance, if we want to find all the files that end with the extension “.java” in the current working directory, we could run the following:
find . -name "*.java" ./BalancedTernary.java ./Subdir/Test.java ./Telephone.java
Note that we must enclose the pattern in quotes in this example in order to prevent the shell from trying to expand the * wildcard. If we don’t, the shell will convert the asterisk into a space delimited set of all the files/directories in the current folder, which will lead to an error
find . -name *.java # expands to find . -name BalancedTernary.java Telephone.java find: Telephone.java: unknown option
Just as we can use the wc command to count the number of times a phrase appears in a file, we can use it to count the number of files matching a given pattern. That is because find outputs each matching file path to a separate line. Thus if we wanted to count the number of java files in all folders rooted in the current folder, we could do
find . -name "*.java" | wc -l
3
While I have only presented the -name flag, there are numerous other flags as well, such as whether the candidate file is a file or directory (-type f or -type d respectively), whether the match is smaller, the same, or bigger than a given size (-size +100M == bigger than 100 megabytes), or when the file was last modified (find -newer ordinary_file would only accept files that have a modification time newer than that of ordinary_file). A A great article for gaining more expertise is Mommy I found it! – 15 practical unix find commands.
Combining find with other commands
find becomes even more powerful when combined with the -exec option, which allows you to execute arbitrary commands for each file that matches the pattern. The syntax for doing that looks like
find [<starting location>] -name <name pattern> -exec <commands> {} \;
where the file path will be substituted for the {} characters. For instance, if we want to count the number of lines in each Java file, we could run
find . -name "*.java" -exec wc -l {} \;
23 ./BalancedTernary.java
1 ./Subdir/Test.java
88 ./Telephone.java
This has precisely the same effect as if we explicitly executed the wc -l command ourselves:
wc -l ./BalancedTernary.java wc -l ./Subdir/Test.java wc -l ./Telephone.java
As another example, we could backup all of the Java files in the directory by copying them and appending the suffix .bk to each
find . -name "*.java" -exec cp {} {}.bk \;
Nick@Macintosh-3 ~/Desktop/Programming/Java/example$ ls
BalancedTernary.java Subdir Telephone.java.bk
BalancedTernary.java.bk Telephone.java
To undo this, we could remove all of the files ending in .bk:
find . -name “*.bk” -exec rm {} \;
Combining find and grep
Since I started the article talking about grep, it’s only natural that you can combine grep with find, and it often pays to do so.
For instance, by combining the earlier grep command to find all TODO items with the find command to find all java files, we suddenly have a command which will traverse an arbitrarily nested directory structure and search all the files we are interested in.
find . -name "*.java" -exec grep -i -n TODO {} \;
1://todo: Create this file
20: // todo: Document
29: // todo: throw exception if precondition is violated
Note that we no longer have the filename prepended to the output; if we want it back we can add the -H flag.
find . -name "*.java" -exec grep -Hin TODO {} \;
./Subdir/Test.java:1://todo: Create this file
./Telephone.java:20: // todo: Document
./Telephone.java:29: // todo: throw exception if precondition is violated
In this last snippet I have combined the individual -H, -i and -n flags together into the shorter -Hin; this works identically as listing them separately. (Not all Unix commands work this way; check the man page if you’re unsure).
An alternate exec terminator: Performance considerations
I said earlier that the basic syntax for combining find with other commands is
find [<starting location>] -name <name pattern> -exec <commands> {} \;
The ; terminates the exec clause, but because it can be interpreted as text, it has to be backslash escaped. While researching this article I found a Unix/Linux “find” Command Tutorial that introduced me to an alternative syntax for terminating the -exec clause of the find command. By replacing the semicolon with a + sign, files are grouped together in batches and sent to the given command rather than executed one at a time. Let me illustrate:
# Executes the 'echo' command on each file individually
find . -exec echo {} \;
.
./BalancedTernary.java
./Subdir
./Subdir/Test.java
./table.html
./Telephone.java
./test.a
# Executes the 'echo' command on bundled groups of files
find . -exec echo {} +
. ./BalancedTernary.java ./Subdir ./Subdir/Test.java ./table.html ./Telephone.java ./test.a
This technique of grouping the files together can have a profound performance boost when used with commands that can handle space terminated arguments. For instance:
time find /Applications/ -name "*.java" -exec grep -i TODO {} \;
real 1m36.458s
user 0m3.912s
sys 0m10.933s
time find /Applications/ -name "*.java" -exec grep -i TODO {} +
real 0m39.060s
user 0m3.660s
sys 0m6.571s
# An alternate way of executing grep on batches of files at once #
time find /Applications/ -name "*.java" -print0 | xargs -0 grep -i "TODO"
real 0m50.486s
user 0m4.230s
sys 0m7.924s
By replacing the semicolon with the plus sign, I gained almost a 2.5x speed increase. Again, this will only work with commands that correctly handle whitespace separated arguments; the previous example with copy would fail miserably, because cp expects a single src/destination pair
# Will not work!
find . -name "*.java" -exec cp {} {}.bk +
Converting results of find/grep into table form – Intro to sed, cut, and basename
In the last section, I showed how to combine find and grep. The output of the command will look something like this:
find . -name "*.java" -exec grep -Hin TODO {} +
./Subdir/Test.java:1://todo: Create this file
./Telephone.java:20: // todo: Document
./Telephone.java:29: // todo: throw exception if precondition is violated
The output has the path to the file, followed by a semicolon, followed by the matching line in the input file that had the TODO in it. Let’s mimic the output of the TODO list in TextMate, which simply displayed a two column table with File name and line number followed by the extracted comment. While we could use any programming language to do this text manipulation (Python springs to mind), I’m going to use a combination of sed and shell scripts to illustrate a few more powerful command line tools.
Recall that the output of our script so far looks like the following:
./Telephone.java:20: // todo: Document
In other words each line is in the form
relative/path/to/File:lineNumber:todo text
The colons delimiting the text allow us to split the constituent parts very easily. The command to do that is cut. With cut you specify the delimiter on which to split the text, and then which numbered fields you want (where fields are numbered 1 .. n)
As an example, here is code to extract the path (the first column of text):
find . -name "*.java" -exec grep -Hin TODO {} + | cut -d ":" -f 1
./Subdir/Test.java
./Telephone.java
./Telephone.java
This gives us the path, one per line. If we want to convert the relative path into just the name of the file, like the TextMate example does, we want to strip out all of the leading directories, leaving just the file name. While we could code up a regular expression to perform the substitution, I prefer to avoid doing more work than I need to. Instead I’ll use the basename command, which does that for us.
find . -name "*.java" -exec grep -Hin TODO {} + | basename `cut -d ":" -f 1`
Test.java
Telephone.java
Telephone.java
The line number, the second column of text, is just as easy to extract.
find . -name “*.java” -exec grep -Hin TODO {} + | cut -d “:” -f 2 1 20 29
The fact that the line of text extracted by grep could contain the colon character (and often will; I always write my TODOs as TODO: do x) means we have to be a bit smarter about how we use cut. If we assume that the text is just in the third column, we will lose the text if there are colons.
# Only taking the third column
echo "./Telephone.java:20: // todo: Document" | cut -d ":" -f 3 // todo
# Taking all columns after and including the third column
echo "./Telephone.java:20: // todo: Document" | cut -d ":" -f 3-
// todo: Document
While this works, it’s not the neatest output. In particular we want to get rid of the leading white space; otherwise it will mess up the formatting in the HTML table. Performing text substitution is the job of the sed tool. sed stands for stream editor and it is capable of doing extremely heavy duty find and replace tasks. I don’t pretend to be an expert with sed and this article won’t make you one either, but hopefully I can at least illustrate its usefulness. For a more in depth tutorial, see Sed – An Introduction and Tutorial.
A common use case for sed, as I mentioned, is to replace text. The general pattern is
sed ‘s/regexpToReplace/textToReplaceItWith/[g]’
The s can be read as “substitute”, and the optional g stands for global. If you omit it, it will only replace the first instance of the regular expression match that it finds. The g makes it search for all matches in the text.
Thus to remove leading white space, we can use the expression sed ‘s/^[ <tab>]*//g’
where the ^ character indicates that it must match the start of the line, and the text within brackets are the characters that will be matched by the regular expression. The * means to match zero or more instances. In other words, this line says “match the start of the string and all spaces and tabs you can until reaching other text, and replace it with nothing”.
The above command is not strictly correct. We need to indicate to sed that we want to replace the tab character. Unlike many Unix utilities, sed does not allow you to use the character sequence \t to indicate the tab character. Instead you need a literal tab at that place in the command. The problem with doing this is that your shell might swallow the tab before it gets to the sed command. In bash, the default shell environment on the Mac, the tab key is interpreted as a command to auto complete what is being typed. If you press the tab key twice, the shell will print out all the possible autocompletions.
For instance,
$lp<tab><tab> lp lpc lpmove lppasswd lpr lprsetup.sh lpadmin lpinfo lpoptions lpq lprm lpstat
Here I started typing lp, hit tab twice, and the shell produced a list of all the commands it knew about (technically, that are on the PATH environment variable). So we need a way to smuggle the tab key into the sed command, without triggering the shell’s autocompletion. The way to do this is with the “verbatim” command sequence, which instructs the shell not to interpret certain commands and instead to pass them treat them verbatim, as text.
To enter this temporary verbatim mode, you press Ctrl V (sometimes indicated as ^V online) followed by the key combination you want treated as text. Thus the real sed command to remove leading white space is sed ‘s/^[ ]*//’
$ sed 's/^[ ]*//'
spaces
spaces
tabs
tabs
tabs and spaces
tabs and spaces
The above snippet illustrates that sed reads from standard input by default and thus can be used interactively to test the replacements you have specified. Again, in the above text it looks like I have a string of spaces, but it’s really <space><ctrl v><tab> within the brackets. From here on out I will put a \t to indicate a tab but you should realize that you need to do the ctrl v tab sequence I just described instead.
(Aside: I have read online that some versions of sed actually do support the \t character sequence to indicate tabs, but the default sed shipping with Mac OSX does not.)
sed – combine multiple commands into one
If you have series of text replacements you want to do using sed, you can either pipe the chain of transformations you want to do from one sed invocation to another, or you can use the -e flag to chain them together.
echo "hello world" | sed 's/hello/goodbye/' | sed 's/world/frank/' goodbye frank echo "hello world" | sed -e 's/hello/goodbye/' -e 's/world/frank/'goodbye frank
Note that you need the -e immediately after the first sed pattern as well; I naively tried to do
echo "hello world" | sed 's/hello/goodbye/' -e 's/world/frank/'sed: -e: No such file or directory sed: s/world/frank/: No such file or directory
Integrating sed with find and grep
Combining all of the above sed goodness with the previous code we have
find . -name "*.java" -exec grep -Hin TODO {} + | cut -d ":" -f 3- | sed 's/^[ \t]*//'
//todo: Create this file
// todo: Document
// todo: throw exception if precondition is violated
I don’t want the todo text in the comments, as it would be redundant. As such I will remove the double slashes followed by any white space followed by todo, followed by an optional colon, followed by any space.
find . -name "*.java" -exec grep -Hin TODO {} + | cut -d ":" -f 3- | sed -e 's/^[ \t]*//' -e 's/[\/*]*[ \t]*//' -e 's/TODO/todo/' -e 's/todo[:]*[ \t]*//'
Create this file
Document
throw exception if precondition is violated
This can be read as
s/^[ \t]*// remove leading whitespace s/[\/*]* remove any number of forward slashes (/) or stars (*), which indicate the start of a comment [ \t]* remove whitespace s/TODO/todo convert uppercase TODO string into lower case todo remove the literal string 'todo' [:]* remove any colons that exist [ \t]* remove whitespace
We now have all the pieces we need to create our script.
Putting it all together
I’m going to show the script in its entirety without a huge amount of explanation. This post is more about the use of find/grep/sed than it is about shell scripting. I don’t claim to be an expert at writing shell scripts, so I wouldn’t be surprised if there’s a better way to do some of the following. It is not perfect; as the comments indicate, it wouldn’t handle text like ToDo correctly in the sed command. More importantly, there are some false positives in the lines it returns: things like toDouble match, because it contains the string ‘todo’. I’ll leave such improvements to the reader; if you do have any suggestions for the script, please add them to the comments below.
#!/bin/sh
# From http://www.linuxweblog.com/bash-argument-numbers-check
EXPECTED_ARGS=1
E_BADARGS=65
if [ $# -gt $EXPECTED_ARGS ]
then
echo "Usage: ./extract [starting_directory]" >&2
exit $E_BADARGS
fi
# By default, start in the current working directory, but if they provide
# an argument, use that instead.
if [ $# -eq $EXPECTED_ARGS ]
then
startingDir=$1
else
startingDir="."
fi
# Start creating the HTML document
echo "<html><head></head><body>"
echo "<table border=1>"
echo "<tr><td>Location</td><td>Comment</td></tr>"
# The output of the find command will look like
# ./Telephone.java:20: // todo: Document
find $startingDir -name "*.java" -exec grep -Hin todo {} + |
# Allows the script to read in piped in arguments
while read data; do
# The location of the file is the first argument
fileLoc=`echo "$data" | cut -d ":" -f 1`
fileName=`basename $fileLoc`
# the line number is the second
lineNumber=`echo "$data" | cut -d ":" -f 2`
# all arguments after the second colon are the comment. Eliminate the TODO
# text with a simple find and replace.
# Note: only handles todo and TODO, would need some more logic to handle other cases
comment=`echo "$data" | cut -d ":" -f 3- | sed -e 's/^[ ]*//' -e 's/[\/*]*[ ]*//' -e 's/TODO/todo/' -e 's/todo[:]*[ ]*//'`
echo "<tr>"
echo " <td><a href="$fileLoc">$fileName ($lineNumber)</a></td>"
echo " <td>$comment</td>"
echo "</tr>"
done
# Finish off the HTML document
echo "</table>"
echo "</body></html>"
exit 0
If you save this script as a .sh file, you will need to make it executable before you can run it. From the terminal:
chmod +x extract.sh # Extract all the TODO comments in the Applications folder, and save it as an html table # Redirect the printed HTML to an HTML document ./extract.sh /Applications > table.html
The source code for the script is available on github. Running the script in my /Applications directory leads to the following HTML table:
| Location | Comment |
| Aquamacs (629) | return ((ObjectReference)val).toString(); // |
| Aquamacs (633) | return val.toString(); // not correct in all cases |
| Cycling (11) | support joint operations on more than one channel. |
| Cycling (27) | what about objects with more than one input? |
| Cycling (36) | improve feedback math — fixed point, like jit.wake? |
| Cycling (277) | theta shift? |
| Cycling (349) | double closest[] = new double[] {a[0].toDouble(), a[1].toDouble(), a[2].toDouble()}; |
| Cycling (351) | double farthest[] = new double[] {a[0].toDouble(), a[1].toDouble(), a[2].toDouble()}; |
| Cycling (5) | describe the class |
| Cycling (22) | implement with a Vector to improve performance |
| Cycling (8) | abort a thread if an incoming message arrives before completion |
| Cycling (8) | have the search happen in a separate thread |
| Cycling (9) | possible to separate the errors that results from not |
| Cycling (191) | implement automatic replacement of shader name in prototype file |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (738) | make this more efficient and just update a sub-part |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (1165) | P3D overrides box to turn on triangle culling, but that’s a waste |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (1180) | P3D overrides sphere to turn on triangle culling, but that’s a waste |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (1508) | Should instead override textPlacedImpl() because createGlyphVector |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (2207) | this expects a fourth arg that will be set to 1 |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (2847) | not optimized properly, creates multiple temporary buffers |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (2858) | is this possible without intbuffer? |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (2870) | remove the implementation above and use setImpl instead, |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (2978) | – extremely slow and not optimized. |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (738) | make this more efficient and just update a sub-part |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (1165) | P3D overrides box to turn on triangle culling, but that’s a waste |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (1180) | P3D overrides sphere to turn on triangle culling, but that’s a waste |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (1508) | Should instead override textPlacedImpl() because createGlyphVector |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (2207) | this expects a fourth arg that will be set to 1 |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (2847) | not optimized properly, creates multiple temporary buffers |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (2858) | is this possible without intbuffer? |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (2870) | remove the implementation above and use setImpl instead, |
| PGraphicsOpenGL.java (2978) | – extremely slow and not optimized. |
The complete result can be found as another github gist.
Quick note: You have to be careful about what you echo in the shell. In an early version, I forgot to surround the text ($data) with quotes. This led to a problem when there were asterisks in the text, since the shell expanded the star into a list of all the files in the directory (aka file globbing). This is a relatively harmless problem; had the line had something like rm * instead, it would have been devastating. So make sure you surround your output text in quotes!
$ echo * ApplicationTODO.html BlogPost.mkdown Find text.mkdown PGraphicsOpenGL.java TabTodo.java Test.html TodoTest.java appTable.html extract.sh tab tab.txt table body.html table.awk table.html table1.html test.java $ echo "*" *
Conclusion
I have introduced the find command and how it can be used to locate files or directories on disk with certain properties (name, last modified date, etc). I then showed how grep can be used to search the contents of a file or stream of content for matching regular expressions. Next I showed you how to combine find with arbitrary Unix commands, including grep with the -exec option. Finally I tied all these concepts together by creating a simple script which searches through all of the java files in a directory for those lines that have TODO in them, and creates an HTML table summarizing the location of each of these tasks, alongside the TODO item text.
Unix tip #2: explicit for loops, command substitution
A lot of unix commands are designed to operate on a large number of files at once. For instance, the move file command, mv, has as its (simplified) arguments
mv file 1 [file 2, ... file n] destination
It’s for that reason that you can do something like
mv *.jpg ~/Desktop/Images
and have all the jpegs in the current working directory moved to the Images folder on the Desktop. So many unix commands are set up that way that you might not need to know how to explicitly iterate (loop). I was forced to learn this syntax when I had a large number of .tar.gz (roughly equivalent to zip files for those more familiar with Windows land) files to decompress.
The command I usually use to extract the contents of a zipped file is
tar -xzvf /path/to/tar/file
This expects a single file path; doing something like tar -xzvf *.tar.gz will not work.
Nick@Macintosh-2 ~/Desktop/TarExample$ ls foo.tar.gz foo2.tar.gz Nick@Macintosh-2 ~/Desktop/TarExample$ tar -zxvf *.tar.gz tar: foo2.tar.gz: Not found in archive tar: Error exit delayed from previous errors
As you can see, this isn’t going to work. Instead we need an explicit loop. The general syntax is
for i in [iterable]; do [command with variable $i]; done
For instance,
Nick@Macintosh-2 ~/Desktop/TarExample$ for i in 1 2 3 4 5; do echo $i; done 1 2 3 4 5
Recalling our last unix tip, we could replace this with
Nick@Macintosh-2 ~/Desktop/TarExample$ for i in {1..5}; do echo $i; done
1
2
3
4
5
The iterable list is whitespace separated. This is very important for what I’m about to show to you next.
If you’re familiar with basic Unix functionality, you know that you list the contents of a directory with the ls command. Let’s do that here.
Nick@Macintosh-2 ~/Desktop/TarExample$ ls foo.tar.gz foo2.tar.gz
If you’ll notice, these are exactly the filenames we need to pass into the tar command. Let’s try with echo first.
for i in ls; do echo $i; done ls
Well, that didn’t work. What’s going on? Turns yout you need to add backticks (the key to the left of the 1 key) around the ls command; otherwise bash treats it as text.
or i in `ls`; do echo $i; done foo.tar.gz foo2.tar.gz
We can go ahead and replace the echo command with our tar command:
Nick@Macintosh-2 ~/Desktop/TarExample$ ^echo^tar -xzvf for i in `ls`; do tar -xzvf $i; done a.txt b.txt a.txt b.txt
The stdout here shows the contents that were extracted from the .tar.gz files.
But what is that syntax?
^echo^tar -xzvf
? This is another neat feature of bash; you can repeat the last command, textually substituting the second command for the first. I could have just as easily hit the up key, moved my cursor, deleted echo, replaced it with tar -xzvf, but this is faster to type for me.
Just for another example,
echo "Hello" Hello Nick@Macintosh-2 ~/Desktop/TarExample$ ^Hello^World echo "World" World
In actuality, I would not use `ls`; what happens if there were things other than .tar.gz files in the directory? We’d be calling the tar command with the incorrect arguments. Instead we only want it to affect the files ending in.tar.gz; this is a place where the * wildcard comes in handy.
Nick@Macintosh-2 ~/Desktop/TarExample$ ls
a.txt b.txt foo.tar.gz foo2.tar.gz
Nick@Macintosh-2 ~/Desktop/TarExample$ ls *.tar.gz foo.tar.gz foo2.tar.gz
So I can use this in my earlier command,
for i in `ls *.tar.gz`; do tar -xzvf $i; done
Note that you can avoid the use of backticks if you use plain wildcard expansion:
for i in *.tar.gz; do tar -xzvf $i; done
The reason that this works without the use of backticks is that the ls text is a command that needs to be run by the shell; the * is an expression that is evaluated earlier in the pipeline. Read more about globbing.
Nested for loops
I haven’t had a need to nest for-loops yet, but you can if you wish.
for i in {1,2,3}; do for j in {3,4,5}; do echo $i $j; done; done
1 3
1 4
1 5
2 3
2 4
2 5
3 3
3 4
3 5
Conclusion:
I have shown you how to explicitly iterate over lists in bash, how to use wildcard matching to restrict the set of objects returned by command, and how to replace one piece of the last command with another. In most cases you will not need to explicitly iterate over lists, due to the way many unix commands are written, but it’s a useful skill to have nonetheless.
Unix tip #1: advanced mkdir and brace expansion fun
If you don’t know all the ins and outs of the mkdir command, you are probably expending more effort than necessary. Imagine this fairly common use case:
You are in a folder and want to create one folder which has 3 sub folders. Let’s call the main folder Programming and its 3 sub folders Java, Python, and Scala. Visually this looks like
or rendered via tree:
Programming/ |-- Java |-- Python `-- Scala
A first pass at accomplishing this would be to create the Programming folder, and then the three individual folders underneath
$ mkdir Programming $ mkdir Programming/Java $ mkdir Programming/Python $ mkdir Programming/Scala
This certainly works, but it takes four commands.
Let’s see if we can’t do better. Delete those folders with the command
rm -rf Programming/
This will delete the programming folder and all subfolders underneath it (the r flag is for recursive, the f flag for forcing the removal of nonempty directories)
Like most unix commands, the mkdir command can take multiple arguments, separated by spaces. So the three separate commands to create Java, Python, and Scala can be put onto one line.
mkdir Programming; mkdir Programming/Java Programming/Python Programming/Scala
Note the ; separator between the two commands. We need to create the Programming folder before we can create the subfolders.
This is better but still too verbose. It would be nice to remove the mkdir Programming call; we’d like to be able to create an arbitrarily nested folder and have mkdir create all the parent folders automatically. Fortunately there is a way to do this: the -p flag of mkdir does exactly this.
-p Create intermediate directories as required. If this option is not specified, the full path prefix of
each operand must already exist. On the other hand, with this option specified, no error will be
reported if a directory given as an operand already exists. Intermediate directories are created with
permission bits of rwxrwxrwx (0777) as modified by the current umask, plus write and search permission
for the owner.
Thus we can change our command to
mkdir -p Programming/Java Programming/Python Programming/Scala
This is better but still not perfect; we’re repeating ourselves 3 times with the Programming call. Enter an absurdly useful Bash shell construct known as brace expansion.
echo {5,6,7}
5 6 7
The arguments within braces are treated as if they were space separated instead. That wouldn’t be terribly useful except that things immediately before the brace are repeated as well
echo hello{5,6,7}
hello5 hello6 hello7
This brace expansion can be used anywhere, since the textual substitution happens before the arguments are passed into other processes. So, combining this with what we saw earlier, we can put Java, Python and Scala into a list and prepend it with Programming:
echo Programming/{Java,Python,Scala}
Programming/Java Programming/Python Programming/Scala
That should look very familiar. Putting it in place of the earlier mkdir command we get the elegant one liner
mkdir -p Programming/{Java,Python,Scala}
Certain versions of bash also support numerical ranges within the brackets:
echo {1..10}
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Conclusion:
I have shown you how to create all the parent directories using the mkdir command, and introduced you to the brace expansion macro of Bash. The latter is extremely powerful, and can be used to great effect within scripts.
Note: The arguments within the braces must have NO space between after or before the commas in order for the brace expansion to work.
[572][nicholasdunn: Desktop]$ echo {5, 6, 7}
{5, 6, 7}
[573][nicholasdunn: Desktop]$ echo {5,6,7}
5 6 7
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